Unit+2+Term+List

1. Louis XIV - Known as the Sun King, he was an absolute monarch that completely controlled France. One of his greatest accomplishments was the building of the palace at Versailles. Louis XIV left France a lot of debt, which Louis XV had to deal with. He claimed his divine right to rule over France in an absolutist system. He claimed that only he could reform France, and that no one else should have that power. This idea is known as "absolute monarchy." During his time, there was no Estates system and no Parliament, only Louis' word. Throughout his reign, this king and the nobles butted heads over their power and social status. Tired of the nobles challenging his system of rule, Louis XIV decided that the only way to rise above was to exhibit that his power was far greater than what they imagined. Thus, Versailles was erected and became a symbol of the King's divinity and social idolization. The nobles now focused on building their own versions of this to show their power. A whole new arena of competition had been created. Yet, the nobles still criticized the King for his policies and began to put pressure on the courts to do limit his power. Louis XVI was a lavish king and because of this lavishness and greed, Louis XIV was a contributing factor to the extremely large debt of France, which was a large contributor to the French Revolution. Overall, Louis' goal was to create an absolute monarchy in France, and to abolish all traces of feudalism that still remained in France. Louis XIV died in 1715 and his grandson Louie XV took over the thrown at age five.

2. Louis XV - appointed Rene de Maupeou as chancellor and ordered him to crush the judicial opposition ; he led France into the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War Louis XV: Louis XV was the great-grandson of the Sun King. Because he was crowned King at age 5, his regent, Duke of Orleans governed until he came of age. During this time the Duke reinstated the Parliament of Paris, a high court of Bourgeois that had to okay the King's rules before they became actual laws. While the Duke felt that this court was built of hard working middle-class men whose status cause to aid the King, but not match his level of power. However, as they climbed up in the social chain, their influence threatened the King's. When the King came of age, he made several changes. First, during wars like the War of Austrian Succession and the 7 Year's War the French Army needed funding so the King taxed everyone 5%. Yet, this taxation caused bitter rebellion from the nobles and 3rd estate. They even said that the King's power should lower to only protecting the liberty of France. Thus Louis XV along with his harsh chancellor cancel the Parlement of Paris and order the member to leave Paris and remain it exile in their own providences. A new Parlement of solely royal advisors replaced the nobles and forged 5% taxation on nobles. It had gone from landowning nobles who wanted to elude paying taxes, to royals who taxed everyone else but were exempt themselves. This system was never lived out because Louis XI's sudden death brought uncertainty of what to do next. Although he died in 1774 when the new king Louie XVI took over.

3. Parliament of Paris - the chief judicial body where they evaluated the kings decrees Parliament of Paris: This was group reinstated by the Duke of Orleans during Louis XV's reign (It hadn't been active for more than 100 years). It consisted of intelligent middle class members that were intended to serve as a judges that evaluated the laws that the King wanted to put in effect. Over time many of them had bought their way into nobility and thus gained social status. Their position on the court were now passed down, just as artisans passed skills down to their children. Thus, the court became a strong brotherhood of nobility and wealth whose power began to catch up with the King's. After bitter battles over the taxation of the people (including these now noblemen) due to the War expenses, the noblemen and the Kind were in a headlock. So, Louis XV took the big step of abolishing the Parlement and exiling the men. It was only shortly after his death that his son Louis XVI, who was rather unsure about how one must rule, reinstated the Parlement of Paris. The public hailed them as heroes; yet, it wasn't long before the King and the Parlement were at eachother's throats. History repeated itself and King Louis XVI cancelled the Parlement like his father. Only, XVI realizes that he actually needs them in order to keep France from collapsing. In an attempt to regain strength, he calls them out of exile and reinstates them again.

4. Seven Years’ War- The final war between France and Great Britain, which ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1763; it made France plummet into great financial debt. Mainly between France and Great Britain, it also brought Prussia, Hanover and Kessel and Brunswick(German States), which were all Protestant nations, along with the British colonies, the Iroquois(mainly supporting the British colonies) and Portugal in on the side of Great Britain. Opposite them with France, Austria, Russia, Sweden, Spain, Saxony(German State), and Sardinia(Italian Island). The war gave little to anybody at wars end, but established Prussia as a strong European power, strengthened Great Britain's position in the Americas(mostly North America when Great Britain took Quebec) and in Asia(predominantly India), and sent most of the beligerents, including France, into a huge amount of debt. 5. Louis XVI - Louis XVI: This son of Louis XV was a timid ruler who was more concerned with trying to please everyone, than doing what was best for France. He managed to undo all that his father had worked for. Louis XV ended the Parliament of Paris because of the power competition, and Louis XVI decided that he wanted to make the public happy, so he brought them back. By doing this, Louis XVI ruined any chance he had at making the public pay taxes. The people began to see the King as the enemy and the Parliament of nobleman as their only resource for preventing the King from total control. The King realized this and decided to rid the government of the Parliament of Paris and exile the members. Soon after Louis XVI brought them back because he knew that he couldn't rule by himself; he wasn't strong enough. It was then that the Parliament of Paris and public, specifically the nobles, convinced the King to allow an Estates General to be called. However Louie XVI cared more about being loved that ruling the country, in he thought that "What I should like most is to be loved". 6. Liberty/Equality - Liberty was the first call to individual rights. Liberal protested against monarchs who claimed that it was their duty to regulate what people wrote and believed. The Declaration of the Rights of Man, issued at the beginning of the French Revolution said that liberty is being able to do anything that does not harm anyone, this was a radical idea back then. Equality was the second call to individual rights. Liberals criticized that this economic inequality on legal distinctions among different social groups. They wanted economic equality.

Liberty and Equality: Both of these then abstract idea were inspired by the humanist view of the enlightenment. People began to understand that humans could be the source of change and accomplishment for the better. Thus, everyone pushed these ideas to become engrained in society. Yet, some wanted it only for themselves. Liberty: the ability to rise based on personal merit, not the accomplishments of your father, or the generation before you. This included freedom to worship, speech and censorship. According the Declaration of the Right's of Man, liberty means that one can do what they chose as long as it doesn't harm the people. With the idea of liberty came the concept of sovereignty, where people had the ability to limit the individual freedom of action. This meant the each class should select only the representatives who have their interests at heart. Equality: Equal rights, privileges and responsibilities for everyone, not based on class. While many liberals agreed with this idea, most still believed in a distinction of rights between women and men. There was also room for economic status in a liberal's mind. They believed that everyone should have a chance at financial success, but only what they put in.

Liberty and equality were driving forces behind the revolutionary period in America and Europe. These concepts are central ideas of classical liberalism. Liberty is the individual human rights for every single person. Equality means that all people should have identical rights and civil liberties regardless of birth. There were a few exceptions to equality. For example, women were not equal to men. Also, people were not economically equal automatically. 7. Bourgeoisie - Well educated, prosperous, middle-class groups. The bourgeoisie was made up of about 2 million people (8% of the population of France). It owned about 65% of the land. These were members of the third estate. The bourgeoisie along with the rural peasants and urban poor paid the majority of the taxes, as well as they paid the tithe. They tended to be the skilled artisans/craftsmen and the merchants, as well as the industrialists(those who built and owned factories) that arrived in the eighteen hundreds. While the Proletariat were easily swayed by both the Bourgeoisie and the Nobles/Landowners, the Bourgeoisie were intelligent and tended to represent the Third Estate. It was mostly the Bourgeoisie that fueled the toppling of the monarchy and the rest of the revolution. They benefited from the revolution as it transformed France into a meritocracy, which allowed them to increase their standing in society, a thing that was very difficult and expensive to do under the monarchs. The Bourgeoisie were considered respectable middle class citizens who, while not poor, worked against the nobility as they also paid many taxes for them. 8. The Estates System - There are three estates the Roman Catholic clergy, the nobility and every one else. Clergy levied a tax on landowners (0.4 % of the population). The nobles continued to enjoy certain manorial rights, or privileges of lordship, it allowed them to tax the peasantry for their own profit; it proclaimed their superiority (1.6 % of population). A few commoners were well educated, many were urban artisans, and the majority were peasants and agricultural workers (98 % of population)

The Estates System: This system consisted of three sections. The first consisted of the clergy who owned about 10% of the land. As a group that couldn't make any other profit than selling products from land or receiving donations, the 1st estate only had to pay a 5 year due to the government as opposed to regular taxes. In order to receive money the church could make landowners pay the tithes. Much of the church's income was siphoned from the helping parishes to the upper officials of the clergy. As for the 2nd estate, it was grouped with nobles. Although they collectively owned 25% of France's land, they were exempt from paying taxes if they provided their serfs and services to the King when needed. Being in the 2nd estate also insured manorial rights. This meant that the landowners could tax their own serfs to regain profit. Legal superiority was also a large part that allowed the 2nd estate to succeed. Other rights included the ability to carry weapons, precedence on public occasions and the right to use land for recreation. The final estate was both the largest and consisted of 65% land ownership. It scaled from successful capitalists and merchants, to government officials, to rural peasants, to urban workers. Despite the diversity, these people all had to pay taxes to both estates 1 and 2, as well as the king. While, they had worked hard to earn their own money and make their own life, much of it went to fund the lifestyles of Louis XVI's extravagant court and the carefree life of the nobles. They had a great deal of responsibility and very little privilege.

9. The Estates General France was facing a large amount of debt, which prompted King Louis XVI to call together the Estates General. Representatives from each of the three estates met together to create petitions for change and choose their delegates for the Estates General. Initially, the estates general has three separate houses (one for each estates); however, this system was flawed as the two-thirds vote required would always be fulfilled by the first and second estates, eliminating the third estate's power. This flaw was later realized, and the system shifted from a tricameral system to a unicameral system (consisted of one house). To assure the distribution of power, and to do justice to the fact that almost all the population was part of the third estate, the amount of delegates representing the third estate matched that which represented the other two estates.

10. National Assembly (June 17, 1789) An assembly that was called in the summer of 1789 to help the transition of France from the weak Estates General under the Monarchy, to a more powerful parliament-like structure for the course of the revolution. Louis was forced to allow its' meeting because of the growing general discontent which would later erupt with the storming of the Bastille. The delegates of the third estate from the Estates General voted to call themselves the National Assembly when the nobility and clergy were not ordered by the king to join them as one single body. ====The National Assembly was a sub-section of the Estates General, which was a democratic solution to the collapsing of absolutism after 1788. The National Assembly was made up of the third estate, or the lower class. When the Estates General first opened, the delegates of the third estate saw that they would always be beaten, as the clergy and nobility would usually vote together. This caused them to call themselves the National Assembly on June 17, 1789. The assembly was forced to disband after about a month, after Louis XVI wanted to re-establish absolutism. The national Assembly was recalled however, after the storming of the Bastille.====

11. Tennis Court Oath (June 20, 1789) The Estates General could not meet in their normal hall due to repairs therefore they moved to a large indoor tennis court, hence forth the "Tennis Court Oath." During the meeting of the Estates General, the delegates of the Third Estate pledged not to disband until they had written a constitution. This was the oath made my each delegate of the National Assembly restating their mission: to work together until they had created a new and fair constitution in which the government cant interfere with others' rights. The eagerness for equality and liberty were the driving forces in the National Assembly's campaign. The tennis court oath was proposed by the National Assembly to make a new constitution. It was called by liberals who recently gained power enough to make some changes. It called for liberty and equality. One purpose of it was to give soverneighty to the people. It was one of the factors that shifted power from the king to the people in the early stages of the revolution.

12. Fall of the Bastille (July 14, 1789) On July 14, 1789, several hundred people went to the Bastille prison to search for gunpowder, but the governor of the prison refused to hand over the gunpowder and ordered his men to fire, killing 98 people. The people of Paris brought cannons to batter the main gate and the people continued to fight until the prison surrendered. The governor of the prison was then hacked to death and his head was paraded through the town on a pike. It was this even that preserved the well being of the National Assembly. This is now French Independence Day. The Fall of the Bastille occurred because the urban poor were searching for gunpowerder with which to defend themselved. Tired of economic depression, as frightened because of rumors that the king's troops were going to sack the city, the urban poor wanted to defend themselves with the gunpowder in the Bastille, as well as make a statement to the king that the mob is not a force to be trifled with. 13. Marquis de Lafayette Marquis de Lafayette was one of many french officers who served in America and was changed by the experience. Marquis was taught in America about liberty and republican beliefs. Marquis brought what he had learned back to France and then along with many thoroughly analyzed both the federal and state constitutions of France in order to make appropriate changes in order to create a constitution more like the American constitution. He aided the United States of America in their own revolution against the British and trained the famous Continental Army and appealed to the French King Louis XVI to increase French involvement(mainly some of the French Navy).

14. The Great Fear Rumors of vagabonds and outlaws paid by nobles to roam the countryside. These scared the rural peasants, who began to rise in spontaneous, violent, and effective insurrection on against their lords. Old taxation imposed on the peasants (serfdom, village monopolies, etc) were abolished. Throughout the time period of the Great Fear peasants took over forests, and many taxes went unpaid causing an even greater debt, which was a leading factor in the beginning of the French Revolution. As well during this time period there were many people rebelling and there was a lot of chaos too.

When there were rumors of vagabonds and outlaws roaming the countryside called the Great Fear. These rumors were believed to be true by the contemporaries, and peasants all around France began to rise up violently in groups against their lords in order to abolish feudal dues and change social relations. 15. Night Session of August 4, 1789 The night session of August 4, 1789, was a meeting that of some liberal nobles and middle class delegates organized at Versailles in order to respond to the urgent peasant demands. This was a surprise maneuver in which the Duke of Aiguillon, a noble land owner, stated that for many provinces a league will be formed to destroy manor houses, damage land, and most importantly the possession of the archives where the deeds to feudal properties are kept. Overall, this session led to the abolition of exaction's imposed on peasants, serfdom, village monopolies, the right to make peasants work on the roads, and many other things.

16. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (August 27, 1789) "Men are born and remain free and equal in rights." Mankind's natural rights are liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. Law is "an expression of the general will; all citizens have the right to concur personally or through their representatives in its formation" Furthermore, this declaration identifies and reinforces the rights of all mankind, which summed up are that everyone should be able to express their ideas and opinions freely without judgment. One of the most important aspects was the freedom to say and think what you want. It was important that the declaration was created at the time that it was because people, specifically middle class and those who were not very important, were beginning to join together and rebel due to their lack of rights. Therefore, in order to settle these rebellions the Declaration of the Rights of Man was create d. the two conservative aspects were that they wanted to keep the monarch and allow some social divisions.

17. Women’s March on Versailles (October 5, 1789) The bread prices were extremely high and this put a lot of pressure on the women who had to maintain the household. On October 5th, seven thousand women marched to the Palace at Versailles to demand action and help from the king. This is called the Declaration of the Women's March on Versailles. There was one tough woman leading the huge group who invaded the National Assembly. They wanted bread, and the killed some of the royal body guards in search of Mary Antoinette. The intervention of Lafayette and the National Guard saved the lives of the royal family. The biggest outcome from this event was that the royal family was forced to move to Paris where the poor lived and had access to them.

18. Marie Antoinette Marie Antoinette married Louis XVI and was the Queen of France during the Reign of Terror. The pair tried to escape France in June 1791, during the Woman's march on Versailles, but were caught, arrested and brought back to Paris. They were then forced to live among the people who hated them most: the poor city folk whose hatred for her was fueled by the Queen's lavish lifestyle during the time they were starving. She was later convicted of treason and executed.

19. Civil Constitution of the Clergy (June 12, 1790) This constitution proclaims that the government will pick the clergy and each town will have a government picked clergy. The National Assembly required the Catholic clergy to take an oath to the new government. Thus, the clergy became just so many more employees of the state. This law allowed the government to take land from the church, allowing the government to obtain more money. This was also an attack upon the church. This upset the Catholic Church and devout citizens of France; however, enlightened thinkers were happy. This tarnished the rest of Europe's monarchies views on France, as they saw it as an act of betrayal against the sacred and infallible Papacy.

20. Constitution of 1791 The Constitution of 1791 was a constitution that was created by the National Assembly under middle class leadership. It was created in order to abolish the nobility as a legal order and resulted in the creation of a constitutional monarchy in which the king remained the head of state and all other government figures were under the leadership of the national assembly who was created and elected strictly by the upper class french men.

21. Edmund Burke A conservative leader who was worried about reforms. He published //Reflections on the Revolution in France// in 1790, in which he claimed such drastic reforms would lead to nothing but tyranny and chaos. This book was highly controversial, and led to Mary Wollstonecraft's debut as a woman's rights activist. He was also a leading member of the conservative faction of the Whig party.

22. Mary Wollstonecraft, //Vindication of the Rights of Women// She was a middle class women who wanted a life other than the typical women of her class did. Her childhood where her father abused her mother caused her to become a governess to make a living and eventually she was employed as an author. In her book, //A Vindication of the Rights of Women//, she emphasized that women should get a coeducation in order to be better wives, parents and overall citizens. She believed that with an education women could be financially independent and could hold any job that men could. Men would also benefit from women's rights, as she said that "the two sexes mutually corrupt and improve each other". She is a significant figure in history because she began the start of people being concerned about woman's rights.

23. Olympe de Gouges A self-taught writer and woman's rights activist, Olympe de Gouges was one of the pioneers of the movement toward equal rights between man and woman. She was inspired by Mary Wollstonecraft's work in London, and began to promote similar ideas in France.

Olympe de Gouges was a feminist french writer who's greatest work "Declaration of the Rights of Woman", in 1791. This document called on men to end their oppression of women, and allow women to have equal rights. The "Declaration of the Rights of Woman also criticized Robespierre, and she was convicted of sedition, and later guillotined in 1793.

24. Declaration of Pillnitz (August 27, 1791) This declaration was made by Austria and Prussia stating that in the event the war in France became a threat they would intervene. This declaration did make sure that it was understood that only under certain circumstances would Austria and Prussia involve their own armies. The fear that the radical revolution would affect other European absolute monarchies affected the creation of this deceleration. This declaration is largely what triggered France to declare war on Austria, as the French Republic feared that Austria and Prussia would attack them, and thought it would be best to attack them preemptively.

25. Legislative Assembly The Legislative Assembly was created after the National Assembly was disbanded. It was different from its predecessor because none of the members of the National Assembly were allowed to be a part of the newly formed Legislative Assembly. Although legislators were still primarily from the same class as before (prosperous, well-educated, middle-class men), they were younger, more liberalistic and nationalistic, and acted with much less caution. The new members were known as the Jacobins (see next term) and were loosely allied.

26. Jacobins These were people who were characterized by their radical liberal views. They formed a small club known as the Jacobin club, and when representing the Legislative Assembly these men were determined to bring about and help continue a liberal revolution. The Jacobins were so important to the revolution because they were younger and less cautious which propelled the revolution because of their radical decisions. The Jacobins were not fond of neither aristocrats nor absolute monarchies, and were overly enthusiastic. They were much younger than their predecessors and not as careful which brought new ideas to the Legislative Assembly.

27. France declares war on Austria France declared war in April of 1792 in the wake of Austria and Prussia's signing of the Declaration of Pillnitz. France feared that these two nations would take advantage of France as she was weak and bankrupt following the revolution, and believed that the only way they could survive an attack would be if they attacked first. At their first attempts to fight Austria, France could not hold its forces and disbanded. With these early defeats, France enacted harsh conscription which eventually paid off as the invaders were in fact pushed out of France and France even ended up gaining territory in the east. Even with the eventual success, the war further damaged the nation's already fledgling economy.

28. Storming of the Tuileries Palace (August 10, 1792) A revolutionary crowd of angry peasants stormed the Tuileries palace were Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette resided. The royal family fled to the Legislative Assembly, where a new National Convention was called for.

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At a time where the general population was very nationalistic, many rumors spread that promoted distrust of the king and queen of France. When the people heard a rumor that Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were working with conservative countries to try to re-obtain their power, a revolutionary crowd overpowered the royal palace at the Tuileries. Louis and his family ran to the Legislative assembly, which imprisoned them. Once they called for a new National Convention that was to be elected, monarchy was coming to an end in France.======

29. National Convention (September 21, 1792) After the king and his family fled to the Legislative Assembly, the Assembly called for a new National Convention to be elected by universal male suffrage. Change from Legislative Assembly to National Convention was a change of to newer ideas. All members of the National Convention were Jacobins and republicans, and the great majority continued to come from the well-educated middle class. However, the Convention was increasingly divided into two bitterly competitive groups- the Girondists and the Mountain.

30. September Massacres

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These were a series of executions provoked by the rumor that aristocrats and priests who were against the revolution and imprisoned were making plans to invade with the help of allies. The fear of this rumor caused angry mobs to go to the prisons in Paris and kill half of the imprisoned population. =====

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When Louis XVI was imprisoned after rumors spread that he was conspiring with conservative nations, other rumors spread that there were more counter-revolutionary aristocrats and priests were conspiring with the allied invaders. This inspired a mob to go to prisons and kill half of the people they found=====

31. The Republic The Republic tried to change the way France viewed everything. They went as far as to rename the months in the year. A main part of the Republic was diminishing the power of the Catholic Church. Peasants who did not live in cities were more devout Catholics and did not like the Republic.

The Republic sought to create a new popular culture. It adopted a new revolutionary calendar, which eliminated saints' days and named the days and the months after the seasons of the year. Promoted broad, open democratic festivals to redirect people's traditional enthusiasm for the Catholic church. The Republic was established after the fall of absolutism in France in 1792, in the form of the elected National Convention. Through popular culture, the Republic was trying to sway people from Catholicism to Nationalism. Although all of the members of the National Convention were republicans, they were divided into the Girondists and the Mountain. This division lead to later conflict in the Convention

32. Girondists This was a political party within the National Convention named after a department in southwestern France called the Gironde. These people were the philosophers and the brains behind the Convention. The main concern of the Girondists was that the Mountain would make France a despotic state as it was under the Monarchy. When The Mountain became the undeniably more powerful of the parties (mostly via their alliance with the Sans-Culottes), the vast majority of Girondists were imprisoned or killed.

33. The Mountain This was a political party within the National Convention named because the people that made up this party sat on the highest benches in the assembly hall. These people were the activists within the Convention. The Mountain worried that the Girondists would become conservative because of their already moderate beliefs. Although they were in competition with each other, the Mountain eventually won due to their alliance with the Sans-Culottes, resulting in a more radical group of people. The mountains believed in equal outcome.

34. Maximilien Robespierre Robespierre was a member of the National Assembly and had radical ideas about the revolution. Robespierre influenced the revolution by starting the "reign of terror". It is considered one of the most controversial phases of the revolution. Robespierre was executed after his power overtook him. Robespierre was one of the leaders of the political party "the Mountain".

35. Execution of Louis XVI (January 1793) A rumor was circulating around France that King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette had committed acts of treason. The Tuileries palace was captured on August 10, 1792 by a crowd of civilians angry with the King and Queen, while Louis fled to the Legislative Assembly with his family for refuge. Instead of finding safety, however, the King was instead stripped of his power and arrested. The Legislative Assembly demanded the reinstating of National Convention, with candidates chosen by universal male suffrage. The King was then executed on charges of treason.

36. The First Coalition (Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, Spain, the Netherlands, Sardinia) The First Coalition was the group of countries that were in war with France and were attempting to keep the French armies from taking over their land (ex. the Austrian Netherlands and the German Rhineland). They succeeded during the first encounter that was made, but their rate of success slowly declined as the French republican armies became more able to fight together.

37. Sans-Culottes The Sans-Culottes were impoverished traders and laborers who could not afford the knee length trousers of the aristocracy and middle class. They were mainly concerned with being able to support themselves financially in order to feed themselves and their families.

Sans-Culottes is the name for the petty traders and laboring poor because they wore trousers in stead of the knee breaches that the aristocracy and solid middle class wore. Their interests were mainly economic. In the spring of 1793, they demanded radical political action to guarantee them their daily bread.

The San-Culottes mainly had economic interests due to rapid inflation, unemployment, and food shortages They demanded action to guarantee stability for them and their families.

Sans- Culottes were the laboring poor of France right before the Revolution. They played an integral role in it by being supported by the Girondists. They wanted economic changes. At first they were supported in the revolution, but later they were turned against by radical revolutionaries.

38. The Committee of Public Safety The National Convention formed the Committee of Public Safety and gave it dictatorial power to deal with the crisis affecting France, primarily the economic struggles for the sans-culottes. Robespierre and other Mountain representatives were members. The Committee of Public Safety was formed by the National Convention, in order to deal with internal revolts. This committee, which was lead by Robespierre, was responsible for the Reign of Terror, which used fear of the guillotine to squash rebellions.

39. The Reign of Terror The Reign of Terror was a tactic to keep France unified. It had special courts that were in charge of trying rebels. The courts ignored normal legal procedures and put many people in prison. It was created to protect the government, making sure no rebels opposed the revolution.

The Reign of Terror used revolutionary terror to solidify the home front in 1793 and 1794. Revolutionary courts were responsible only try rebels from the Committee of Public Service. It was one of the most controversial phases of the French Revolution. It was a political weapon directed at anyone who might oppose the revolutionary government.

The reign of terror was a judicial system to protect France in the revolution by terrorizing the opponents of French revolutionaries. It was very unfair in its trails, and was very harsh. Beheadings often occurred very soon after an unfair trial there. It restricted the freedom the French people were so desperate for, and created the absolute power which it was established to destroy in the first place.

40. The Thermidorian Reaction When the middle-class lawyers and professionals revolted against the despotism of Reign of Terror, it was called the Thermidorian Reaction. The National Convention took away the economic controls. The wealthy people were celebrating the end of the Terror, the working poor were hit hard. 41. Constitution of 1795 Written by the middle-class members of the National Convention to "guarantee their economic position and political supremacy."

The male population would vote for electors, who would vote for members of the Legislative Assembly. Also created the Directory.

42. The Directory Created by the National Convention to rule France in a democratic fashion. They used the expansionist armies to help solve some of the difficult economic problems, since the army could live off the land it conquered, a large army solved unemployment problems, and a new territory created all kinds of things that above all else could be taxed(trade, workers, towns). When threatened by conservative politicians they ordered the army to throw them out. Eventually, they were overthrown by Napoleon Bonaparte.

43. Napoleon Bonaparte Self-made emperor of France. Started as a lieutenant in the French artillery and eventually fought for Corsican Independence. Eventually, the revolutionary returned to France in 1789 as a Patriot where he was placed in command of the French Army in Italy where he won many victories against the Italians. He led another campaign into Egypt and although unsuccessful he returned to France without the people knowing of his failure. He then sided with the Legislative assembly to overthrow the Directory and install a single dictator. He took his army in and forced both the Directory and the Legislative Assembly to withdraw from politics at gunpoint and took position as Emperor. He then creates the "Grand Empire" of France after defeating Russia and Austria at Trafalgar and he redraws the map of Europe at the Treaties of Tilsit. After his invasion and quick withdraw of Russia he attempts to fight a Quadruple Alliance of Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia and eventually abdicates the throne and is exiled to Elba(off the coast of Italy). He makes his return to France, pushing Louis XVIII off the throne only to be defeated at Waterloo by the Quadruple Alliance. Born in 1769, Napoleon was the new ruler of France after the revolution. He grew in the ranks of the army quickly in the 1790s. He gained power in a coup and replaced the old government. He gained popularity for all the battles he won early in his military career. He established a large empire, occupying much of western and central Europe. He lost power after 1814 when he gained several enemies and defeats, especially his ill-fated campaign against Russia.

44. First Consul The Fist Consul was the path that Napoleon took to gain power. He used this title to quickly gain prominence and importance, and then took power. There were three consuls just like in the Roman Republic. Their Job was to run the entire republic, and when a time of crisis emerged, they would choose a temporary dictator to take over and rule during the wartime. This was Napoleons early title before he became the dictator of France. He used this to gain support from the people of France. He was part of the consulate which replaced the directory.

45. Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code) When Napoleon gained control of France, one of his first things he did was the introduction of an entirely new social order. In this new France, Napoleon's main goal was the continuation of the dismantling of the aristocratic system introduced in the revolution. This code also had some liberal ideas such as granting freedom of religion and the command that government positions must be given to those most qualified, but most important to the social order was the outlawing of granting privileges or jobs solely on the basis of family lineage. This completely overturned the social order that had existed essentially since the dawn of time. This idea of a meritocracy was one very close to Bonaparte himself, as he was only allowed to achieve the tremendous power he did under the brief period where merit meant might during the revolution.

The legacy of this code is still very strong today in both France and her colonies at the time.

46. Coronation of Napoleon (December 2, 1804) After a temporary treaty with the British (which lasted for 1 year), Napoleon decided to renew the war. However, this declaration was a failure in a militaristic viewpoint: Great Britain's navy was far superior than Napoleon had anticipated. Although he failed with the war in Britain at this stage, he was powerful enough to proclaim himself emperor in 1804.

47. The Continental System (established in 1806) The continental system is how he fought an economical war with Great Britain. Britain was the supplier for most of the goods to all of Europe, so Napoleon allied with several Countries and stopped buying good from England. In the end, this effort failed as people needed goods from England and without them, prices rose. Internal tariffs also were a factor for this strategy going awry.

48. The Grand Empire Napoleon's Empire of France at its peak around 1810. Dominant over Europe while only having Great Britain as opposition. Britain cuts of cheap, factory goods from Empire by blockading the continent from their Isles. Composed of three parts: a perpetually expanding France (by 1810 included Belgium, Holland, northern Italy, some parts of Germany), an ever increasing number of kingdoms outside of France's borders, and the allied states of Russia, Prussia, and Austria (they were expected to stop trade with Britain).

49. Battle of Trafalgar This battle occurred October 21, 1805 and It was because of Napoleon, who at the time was determined to invade Britain and take it over. The problem was that Britain controlled the seas, making it very hard to get Napoleon's army over there.

Napoleon was hoping to invade England by crossing the Channel, but couldn't because Lord Nelson wiped out the Spanish and French army when they tried to go around Gibraltar to northern France. Napoleon lost this battle, but continued to reap the benefits of a wartime atmosphere. The battle of Trafalgar was a sea battle between the Spanish and French team and the British force. Although The French Spanish side had more ships, the British won due to their naval supremacy with few losses.

50. Battle of Waterloo The battle of Waterloo occurred in 1815 and signified the End of the Hundred days that Napoleon returned from exile. This was a Battle Between Napoleon and the Duke of wellington from Prussia, and in the End, Napoleon was Defeated and removed from power. Napoleon was then imprisoned on the island of St. Helena (off the coast of Africa). Louis XVIII, who had fled before the Battle of Waterloo, returned to France; his cowardly behavior was frowned upon by the allies. The battle of Waterloo as Napoleon's final attempt at ruling Europe. It occurred months after he regained power form Louis XVIII. It was the end of his reign as emperor of France. He fought against a coalition of several European countries and lost.