Unit+I+Term+List

Audrey: A transformation of the traditional farming methods into modern systems with efficiency like never before. This occurred because the landowners understood that their landownership meant power and profit; they wanted to utilize the space as best as possible. This revolution's basis was to use land to its full potential in order to produce more crops. With a surplus of crops the landowners could sell to people who lived in different areas, rather than solely feeding the people who lived on the land. The agricultural revolution allowed landowners to sell to a span of people. This meant that they would profit on a much larger scale than limited production had allowed before. They were not just growing food for self-survival anymore, but for money.
 * 1. Agricultural Revolution**: [[image:file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/aimbs/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/moz-screenshot.jpg width="8" height="24"]]

Audrey: Enclosure was the landlords decision to block off the use of all previously communal land to the serfs who served them. Thus, the open-field farming that once was a pillar of feudalism became a waste of resources. Instead of having fields that everyone could use, including the serfs, for various purposes, the landlords fenced in the fields and made them strictly for crop growth. Crops would be rotated to preserve quality, as well as manure to freshen soil. Before it had been used as place to garden and allow livestock to graze; however, now it was being yanked away so the landlords could make quick bucks. Despite the serfs' efforts to persuade Parliament that making them pay out their shares so new methods could be invested in and renounce their right to access the land, Parliament was powered by the interests of landowners themselves. So, they were shut down and had to give up their common rights, or right to the land. Ultimately, this lack of access to land would motivate the serfs to break free of this feudalistic system and find work elsewhere. Often it was in factories because the focus of loyalty and service in feudalistic England had switched to the yearning for personal profit in the capitalist England. It was a necessary move on the path of greed and competition towards the goal of a stronger and wealthier society.The whole point of this enclosure was to create a stronger system that produced more crops to sell to the growing population. Therefore, more demand would be created and ultimately more profit for the landlords. According to the book, Holland was a force in the instigation of a new agricultural way. It was from studying the Dutch that England came to adopt these ideas.
 * 2. Common Rights / Enclosure**

Audrey: A person who has gone from being a loyal and contributing serf that once owned/ used a portion of landowner's property for personal use, and now he has no land to claim for himself, thanks to the enclosure acts. Thus, he must live on the wages he earns from factory work. Without land, he has no true voice. Mainly uneducated, these people are the most heavily taxed citizens in any country for most of history(ending around the 19th century with many countries switching to the industrialist bourgeoisie become predominant as well). Largest portion of the population.
 * 3. Proletariat**

Audrey: Was the preview of capitalism, the English were becoming a strong force in growth of wealth, yet it still was a very different school of thought. First, mercantilism expressed the idea of a immensely government regulated system. This system fostered the growth of nation-states; it wanted both public advance for the nation as a whole, as well as individual growth for each citizen. While this system trusted the market system, it couldn't wrap it’s head around the idea of the value of the market or the goods being sold as the commodity rather than gold. Therefore, importing was frowned upon in mercantilism because they wanted England to run a their own production, instead of realizing that there could be a long-term profit from getting goods in other areas. They felt that they would be giving away their commodities, so tariffs were set up to insure that those who tried to import goods would pay a pretty penny. Exporting was favored because English mercantilism valued payment in tangible items. Yet, they neglected to realize that they could use these produced goods and raw materials to their advantage by selling them domestically. While Capitalism had the theory of working with colonies to import and export, creating a never-ending circle of success, Mercantilism proved to be a single idea that couldn't connect back and be self-sustaining.
 * 4. Mercantilism**

Audrey: These primary factories innovated the idea of taking the large jobs and creating divisions of small tasks within them to speed up the workload. Unlike artisans, it was not a drawn out process of only the best quality, but rather an on-the-side gig to get extra money for the family. It was equally beneficial to the capitalists because they could get more goods produced for a cheaper price than having a concentrated group of full-time workers. They were paid simply by the number they produced. The appeal of this industry was that it could be performed in the familiarity of the home, as opposed to a factory or common place. In this working atmosphere workers didn't have to follow the guidelines set by guilds or employers; they could make their own rules and divide the labor in any which way. Yet it the demise of the system was due to the fighting between workers and merchants.The merchants had trouble controlling workers and suspected them of keeping materials to sell for personal gain. As for the workers, they felt that their wages were far too low, and their hard work was being neglected so the merchants could make more money for themselves.
 * 5. Cottage Industry System / Putting Out System**

Lauren- This simple and affordable invention allowed faster and more efficient means of production. Due to this efficiency prices of a product would go down, allowing higher wages for laborers and greater profits for capitalists. This growth in income allowed innovation.
 * 6. James Hargraves - The Spinning Jenny**

Audrey:A former barber named Richard Arkwright was the supposed brain-child of the water frame. This was a water powered machine with hundreds of spindles that produced cloth using only durable thread. The machine's need for more energy than the spinning jenny required it to be used in only places that could provide this, like factories. This transition from simple machines used in the home to more complex ones inspired the development of factories for the cotton industry. All of which were near water at the time.
 * 7. Richard Arkwright - The Water Frame**

Libby: This underwear was an item that could only be afforded by the wealthy before the water frame and spinning jenny were invented. After these inventions were made, cotton became much less expensive and all classes could buy cotton clothing, anything from underwear to dresses and shirts.
 * 8. Body Linen**

He was employed by the University of Glasgow and was asked to repair a Newcomen (inventor of the first primitive steam engine) engine. Watt modified the engine to make it more efficient by adding a separate condenser. The steam engine made it possible to produce more coal to feed steam engines, causing steam-power to replace water power and other power sources. James Watt made this steam engine more efficient by allowing the steam engine to drain mines allowing a greater production of coal. This steam engine caused the iron industry to radically transform by allowing ironmakers to use coke, which is made from coal. Therefore, the expansion of the steam engine market lead the expansion of the iron market.
 * 9. James Watt - The Steam Engine**

George Stephenson (1781-1848) The Rocket: Audrey: Stephenson was one of the first innovators in the use of the steam engine in railroad transportation. He developed the rails once used for the traveling of a human or a horse into ones that could support a train. He sent the first locomotive, the rocket, in 1830 down the Liverpool to Manchester track. Seeing the success of George's invention and its benefit for transportation of goods, many capitalists jumped in to invest in this new way of travel. Transportation was cheap now, so more people could access goods to buy. This caused demand to shoot up, so factories strengthened, goods were made faster and cheaper and workers and manufacturers both profited.
 * 10. George Stephenson - The Rocket**

William Cockerill (technician): Audrey: Although in was illegal for skilled technicians like William to spill the valued secrets of the English just to make a personal profit, he decided to take his trade to Belgium. There he built cotton spinning machines to sell to the people there. His sons carried on the tradition, purchasing an estate that was transformed into a factory of steams engines and even locomotives themselves. It was Cockerill step to make personal profit that would inspire other nations to adopt the secrets of the English and other countries for their own gain as a nation. Competition was on the rise. Fritz Harkort (entrepreneur): Audrey: Harkort used his knowledge gained as a Prussian officer in England to become the Watt of Germany. His higher calling to boost Germany to the industrial level of England caused him to invest in the production of steam engines. He got many financial leaders to invest in his projects, only to lose a great deal of money. This marks the first time that other countries began to get leaders to invest money into the production of industrial machinery.
 * 11. William Cockerill (Technician)**
 * 12. Fritz Harkort (Entrepreneur)**

List was a German economist who looked at his country then looked at England and sought to catch Germany up with England in terms of economic power and industrialization. List knew that England was already far enough ahead that Germany would need more active government intervention to reach a level of power on par with that of England. He recognized how the United Kingdom's lack of domestic tariffs was a significant part of their economic and industrial success, and he sought to replicate this in Germany through he creation, the Zollverein (see below). Also worked to unite German principalities physically through railroads.
 * 13. Friedrich List (Economic Nationalism)**

Libby: The Zollverein was a customs union that was supported by Friedrich List and made in Germany that allowed goods to be moved within all the separate German states without tariffs being placed on them which would have made the goods much more expensive. Also, a tariff was made against all other countries to keep them from selling their goods to Germany, as Germany needed to industrialize and catch up with the other countries. The external tariff made the goods of Germany cheaper, making the Germans want to buy domestically. The riddance of internal tariffs kept the goods at a cheap price and allowed the Germans to have money to invest in new technology as well as giving them money to spend on more products.
 * 14. Zollverein**

Limited Liability Industrial Banks: Audrey: These banks had a new idea of protecting their investors for the loss of all of their money like in unlimited liability banks that had previously been the only ones. For example, a pair of Belgian banks decided to create limited liability so that their clients would only lost their initial investment if bankruptcy occurs. Therefore, this enormous risk reduce attracted many investors big and small and allowed banks to grow as an industry. This meant that banks themselves could now invest in important productions like new railroads.
 * 15. Limited Liability Industrial Banks**


 * 16. Take-Off**

Audrey: Take off: Economy increases because the wealth from cotton is used to invest in steam engines. Spurs other industries. Growth inspires other growth. Need to go throughout economy. Self-sustaining system

Audrey: Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) Essay on the Principle of Population (1798): In his essay Malthus argued that during a time when people felt that population boom would cause flourishment within England's economy because they made a larger workforce people would be able to be successful. This was because the population would always outnumber the food supply making it impossible for everyone to be feed, especially at a reasonable price. The only glimmer of hope in his mind was to limit the number of children born by trying to limit conception. It should only occur in marriage which was to happen late in life. Yet, even Malthus understood that this sexual capping was unrealistic.
 * 17. Thomas Malthus - Essay on the Principle of Population**

Audrey: David Ricardo (1772-1823) The Iron Law of Wages: As a experienced stock-broker and economist Ricardo believed that population growth would threaten the wages of workers. This is because the more there are, the less each gets paid. Therefore, demand on food doesn't grow because it's so difficult to afford. Thus, the production prices of food and the income of the workers drops down. This system of imbalance would cause the economy to collapse.
 * 18. David Ricardo - The Iron Law of Wages**

In the early days of factories, the owners would resort to using cheap labor, in the form of child labor and a few landless people. These paupers would be sent to work extremely long hours and were paid little to nothing for their work. These acts prohibited such exploitation, and caused factories to look for new jobs in the cities.
 * 19. Pauper Acts of 1802**

[Kelsie] - Act by Parliament that prohibited the hiring of children under 9 years old, limited the workday of children 9-13 to eight hours, and those 14-18 to twelve hours. Children younger than 8 were enrolled in elementary schools run by the mills owners.
 * 20. Factory Act of 1833**

[Kelsie] - Act by Parliament that prohibited underground work for women and boys under the age of ten. This furthered the gender divide in the working classes.
 * 21. Mines Act of 1842**

[Kelsie] - Proletarians who attack factories and destroyed the machines that they blamed for the decline in job
 * 22. Luddites**

The Luddites were critics of the Industrial Revolution. They attacked whole factories in northern England, and smashed the new machines that they believed were putting them out of work. [Kelsie] - Wrote //The Manifesto//, in which they explained that capitalism would inevitable fall. They are considered the forefathers of communism. Marxism is a philosophy that states that the inevitable fall of capitalism will take place when the hardened proletarians, spewed out from the capitalist system, will rise against the ruling classes and abolish private property in favor of a system guided by equality and idealism.
 * 23. Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx**

The skilled workers' unions were unions of skilled artisans and factory workers who wanted to control the number of skilled workers, to ensure the apprenticeship of member's children and to bargain with wages using strikes. The exclusivity of the union and the fact that the member's children followed the trade of their parents greatly resembled feudalism. The skilled workers union defied the Combination Acts that made unions and strikes illegal and the union was able to do this because since they were skilled, not just anybody could do their job. The power of the skilled workers union lied within the fact that they could not easily been replaced. This power scared the elites.
 * 24. Skilled Workers' Unions**

[Kelsie] - Acts by Parliament that banned the actions of the developing trade unions which were set up to improve working conditions in those of an industry. They were widely ignored and eventually repealed.
 * 25. Combinations Act of 1799 (repeal 1824)**

He created the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union, where he wanted everyone to join because he thought if the union was large enough they will have more power. For instance if they go on strike, there are too many people for the employer to replace all those workers. He wanted to help improve living conditions through this Union, but he was shot down by the elites since his idea appealed more to the working and lower classes.
 * 26. Robert Owen - Grand National Consolidated Trades Union**

The Craft Unions won real benefits for members by fairly conservative means and became accepted in the Industrial scene.
 * 27. Craft Unions

28. Chartist Movement** A populist movement devoted to helping the living conditions of the common man. Main goals were universal (male) suffrage, the abolishing of the Corn Laws and a decrease in the maximum workday to ten hours. The movement sought to abolish the Corn Laws, as they hurt the middle and lower classes by raising the costs of grain.

(Connolly)- controlled by aristocrats. Feared radical change in Britain and beyond.
 * 29. Tory Party**

The Corn Laws were import tariffs that were created in order to lower the amount of inexpensive imports from foreign countries and encourage more trade within the Britain.
 * 30. Corn Laws (1815-1846)**

(Connolly)- The House of Commons had become the most important part of government (checks and balances). Industrial workers, middle class, and substantial farmers gained represenation in the Commons, and percent of citizens who could vote went from 8% to 12%. This helped release rising tension without war or revolution.
 * 31. Reform Bill of 1832**

(Mohad) The people's Charter of 1838 was Chartist a document asking for universal male suffrage**.** It had six parts, some main points were the right to vote for all men. It asked that a man did not need land ownership to vote, thus granting suffrage to poorer men. Also, it asked for parliment to change annually and have a salary. It wanted a private ballot for all voters.
 * 32. People's Charter of 1838**

[Katherine] An alliance between workers and capitalists who argued that lower food prices and more jobs in industry depended on repeal of the Corn Laws. The Corn Laws were successfully repealed in 1846.
 * 33. Anti-Corn Law League**

A bill that went through Parliament in 1847 which limited the workday of women and children to ten hours. While the bill was widely supported amongst the people, many members of Parliament were reluctant to pass it as it hurt the rich elites and capitalist factory owners, for whom Parliament largely worked.
 * 34. Ten Hours Act of 1847**

Bentham taught that public problems ought to be dealt with on a rational, scientific basis and according to the "greatest good for the greatest number."
 * 35. Jeremy Bentham**

Chadwick was a commissioner who was charged with admission of relief to pauper under Britain's revised poor law of1834. He believed that in order to get rid of disease, people must clean up urban living.
 * 36. Edwin Chadwick**

He was a commissioner charged with administration of relief to paupers. Under Britain's revised Poor Law of 1834. Believed that disease and death is caused by poverty because a sick worker was unemployed and orphaned children were poor when their parents died from disease.

Urban planning improved the quality of urban life. There was a change in the layout of the city. The French sparked modern urbanization. **
 * 37. Urban Planning